Understanding the spatial dynamics of insect distributions provides useful information about their ecological requirements and can also be used in site-specific pest management programs. Interactions between prey and predator are spatially and temporally dynamic and can be affected by several factors. In this study, geostatistics was used to characterize the spatial variability of spotted alfalfa aphid, THERIOAPHIS MACULATA Buckton and coccinellid lady beetles in alfalfa fields. Global positioning and geographic information systems were used for spatial sampling and mapping the distribution pattern of these insects. This study was conducted in three alfalfa fields with areas of 7. 3, 3. 1 and 0. 5 ha and two growing seasons, 2013 and 2014. The 0. 5 ha field was divided into 10 × 10m grids and 3. 1 and 7. 3 ha fields were divided into 30 × 30m grids. Weekly sampling began when height of alfalfa plants reached about 15cm and was continued until the cuttings of alfalfa hay. For sampling, 40 and 10 stems were chosen randomly in 30 × 30m and 10 × 10m grids, respectively and shaken into a white pan three times. Aphids and coccinellids fallen in the pan were counted and recorded. Semivariance analysis indicated that distribution of T. MACULATA and coccinellids was aggregated in the fields. Comparison of the distribution maps of aphid and lady beetles indicated that there was an overlap between the maps, but they did not coincide completely. This study revealed that relationship between spotted alfalfa aphid and lady beetles was spatially dynamic. These results can be used in biological control and site-specific management programs of T. MACULATA.

Alfalfa contains proteins and other metabolites such as alkaloids, phenolic compounds, and triterpenoid saponins. Alfalfa saponins cause bitterness and decreasing in palatability for animals. The second role is attributed to the formation of protectants against pests, pathogenes and nematodes. This factor is considered as an antibiotic against biostresses. So, it is expected that alfalfa necessarily is a resistant plant. However, specific pests and pathogens have been found to damage alfalfa and reduce yield. In order to study variability and also biological activity of saponins, the behavior of THERIOAPHIS MACULATA was evaluated after aphids fed on the seedlings of 4 alfalfa cultivars. The neonates were transferred on seedlings. Number of suvivals, nymphs, and the size of aphids were recorded. Crude saponins were extracted using methanol 80% after cutting the tissues following freezing in liquid nitrogen and making powder in a mortar. Crude saponins were then purified with butanol following ether precipitation. TLC was used to analyze pure saponin mixtures. Different spots were expressed in variable colors but in same pattern for cultivars on TLC plate. The measurment of Rf showed no difference in saponin patterns. The usage of spotted alfalfa aphid was highly also useful for evaluation. Statistical analysis showed that survivals and nymphs were nearly the same. Although no difference of aphid sizes as well as survivals and production of nymphs in each growth stage was found between aphids feeding on different cultivars but aphid size in wide was significant when aphids were fed on cultivar Euver. However, saponins had no significant role in resistance to spotted alfalfa aphid. Further research is necessary to fmd out the factor increasing wide of aphid body.

In the current study some information is presented about the distribution and associations between alfalfa aphids and their parasitoids in different regions in 11 provinces of Iran, as well as identification key to the parasitoids. The main aphids were THERIOAPHIS trifolii MACULATA (Buckton) and Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) followed by Aphis craccivora Koch and Acyrthosiphon kondoi Shinji. The distribution pattern of these aphids showed a discrepancy in different regions. THERIOAPHIS trifolii MACULATA was almost distributed in all studied areas, but A. craccivora mostly distributed in lower regions including the deserts of the east and central parts of Iran. Acyrthosiphon pisum and A. kondoi were mainly occurred inhigher altitude regions.Trioxys complanatus Quilis and Praon exsoletum (Nees) were found to be specific parasitoids of T.trifolii MACULATA, and collected, with a few exceptions, in all studied regions. The species of Acyrthosiphon were mainly attacked by Aphidius ervi Haliday followed by A. smithi Sharma & Subba Rao and A. eadyi Stary, Gonzalez & Hall. Lysiphlebus fabarum (Marshall) was the common parasitoid of A. craccivora, but Ephedrus persicae Froggatt locally found to show host specificity on this aphid. Praon volucre (Haliday) was occasionally found to attack A. pisum and A. craccivora, but the other parasitoids including Aphidius colemani Viereck, Lysiphlebus confusus Tremblay & Eady and Diaeretiella rapae (McIntosh) were only reared from A. craccivora. Considering the occurrence of alfalfa aphids together with their parasitoids in almost all studied areas, it seems that more attention should be paid to the parasitoids of alfalfa aphids, especially the specific ones, along with other control methods in an integrated pest management programme.

Eucalyptus is a growing tree used for agro-forestry, industrial and medical consumptions E. MACULATA Hook. is one of the most important species of eucalyptus from chemical components and medical applications point of view. The leaves of E. MACULATA were collected in various seasons from Khuzestan provinces (tropical region station Dezfoul, Safi Abad).Essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation and were analysed by GC and GC/MS. The highest and the lowest essential oil yields were found in autumn and spring, respectively. Major compositions were 1, 8-cineole (22.5% in winter), citronellal (15% in spring) and citronellol (35% in summer). The most perfumed compositions were in summer (46%). Also the most compound was citronellol in the whole seasons and citronellyl acetate amount had fixed in the whole year.

Alfalfa (Medicago Sativa) is one of the most important forage plants in Iran. Several pests like aphids cause damage to these plants. One of the important aphids is the spotted alfalfa aphid (THERIOAPHIS trifolii). In order to study the genetic variation of this pest, samples were taken from alfalfa fields of different provinces of Iran (Kerman, Fars, Kohkiloieyeh, Lorestan, Hamadan, Kermanshah, Kurdistan, West Azerbaijan, Markazi and Esfahan provinces) during 2007-2009. Seven RAPD primers were used in PCR test. At the range of 200-400 bp., 68 bands out of 88 had polymorphism. The primers A11 and CO4 had the highest polymorphisms that were 77.78 and 73.68 percent respectively. The related dendrogram showed 3 clusters and the second cluster had two sub clusters. In this research genetic differences were seen between collected samples from various regions, but no relationship was observed between these differences and altitudes, longitude, and position of the sampling locations.

Due to Eucalyptus potential as a fast growing species, its utilization for afforestation and industrial and medical purposes is very important. E. MACULATA Hook. is an important species among the other eucalypts in respect to some chemical components production and medical utilization. Sexual and asexual propagation of this species is difficult, for this reason the trial was conducted to investigate its propagation by tissue culture, using micro mature stocks.The produced explants from the mature stocks, were placed on MS medium (Murashige and Skooge) treated by 1/2 nitrate and various growth regulators such as Kin (Kinetin), BAP (Benzylamino purine), IBA (Indole-3-acetic acid), 2ip (2-Isopentyladenine), TDZ (Tidiazorun) and NAA (Naphtalen Acetic Acid) at different levels of concentration. After two months, growth indexes, including shoot number, shoot height, root number, root length, bud number and greenness rate were measured and recorded. Results showed that the best shooting treatment was IBA (0.01 mgl-1), BAP (0.3 mgl-1) and 2ip (0.5 mgl-1), in which average shoot number, shoot height and greenness rate were 4.63, 2.73 cm and 3.75, respectively, whereas the best rooting treatment was NAA (0.5 mgl-1) plus IBA (0.5 mgl-1), in which root length was 0.2 cm. Finally, the micropropagated plantlets were transferred to greenhouse to pass their adaptation process.

Population dynamics of three main alfalfa aphids, namely: pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris), spotted alfalfa aphid, THERIOAPHIS trifolii forma MACULATA (Buckton), black alfalfa aphid, Aphis craccivora Koch, and their most abundant predators and parasitoids in three sites and in two subsequent years in Isfahan, Iran, were investigated. The results revealed that frequency and temporal occurrence of alfalfa aphids and their natural enemies in different regions were varied, but aphid natural enemy populations were more or less coincident with aphid populations. Populations of aphids were mainly affected by alfalfa harvesting, ambient temperature, and coccinellid predators. Hemipterous predators in contrast with coccinellids, had little effect on aphid populations. Parasitoids seem to be effective on low populations of alfalfa aphids. Air humidity and rainfall had no effect on populations of alfalfa aphids.

During a two-year (2004-2005) survey of alfalfa aphids and their natural enemies in Isfahan, a total of four aphid species and 58 species of their natural enemies comprised of 45 predatory species, 11 parasitoid species and two species of parasitic mites were collected and identified. Moreover, five hyperparasitoid species were collected. On each sampling date, six 20-sweep samples were taken using a 38cm-diameter sweep-net and also six 20-stem were sampled. The results showed that the mean percent of Hippodamia variegata Goeze, Nabis spp., Deraeocoris spp., Orius spp., Geocoris spp. and aphid parasitoids in strip-harvested field were 38%, 95%, 119%, 57%, 100% and 122%, respectively; higher than those in conventionally-harvested field. In contrast, the mean percent of Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) and THERIOAPHIS trifolii (Monell) forma MACULATA (Buckton) were 24% and 28%, respectively; lower in strip-harvested field than in conventionally-harvested field.

Using water yellow traps, population fluctuation of winged aphids, vector of potatoes viral diseases, has studied in four districts of Hamedan province including Hamedan, Kaboodar ahang, Ghahavand and Assadabad during 1998-2000 period. In this connection, four species belonging to family Aphididae and one species of family Drepanosiphidae were collected. Among vector species THERIOAPHIS trifolii forma MACULATA (Buckton) with 65-91% of total collected population tored other species in all above mentioned district. The other important species, collected in lower number, were Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris), Myzus persicae (Sulzer), Macrosiphom euphorbiae (Thomas) and Aphis frangullae gossypii (Glover). Kaboodarahang with lowest population of aphid vectors and shortest period of aphid presence in potato fields considered as the most suitable region and Hamedan district owing to high vector population and longest presence of aphids in fields showed to be the most unsuitable site for basic seed potato production the other two districts are evaluated as intermediary to two above-mentioned regions.